| When were the forms of media created? When did | | | | Question," the owner of Revlon was personally |
| advertising first show up? Who owns the | | | | hand-selecting the winners and losers on the show.2.It |
| media?Creation of the various forms of | | | | was becoming financially difficult for just one advertiser |
| media*Newspapers & Magazines ~ 1880*Movies ~ | | | | to support an entire show.Around this same time |
| 1910*Television ~ 1945*Cable Television ~ | | | | came the inception of ratings to measure a show's |
| 1980's*Satellite Television, Internet, Digital | | | | popularity. Ratings, quite simply, measure the number of |
| Communication ~ End of the 20th centuryIn 1920, radio | | | | people watching a show. To understand why ratings |
| was first developed, primarily for use by the military, | | | | are so important, it's crucial to understand how the |
| strictly for sendingHistory of the Media - Old Radios | | | | television industry works, through three questions, and |
| messages from one location to another. David | | | | their respective answers:1.Who owns television? [The |
| Sternoff, the then-president of RCA, first had the idea | | | | networks]2.What is sold on television? [Viewer's time, |
| to sell radio sets to consumers, or what were then | | | | not television shows]3.Who are the customers of |
| called radio receivers. However, consumers needed a | | | | television? [Advertisers, not viewers]This might be a |
| reason to buy radios, so RCA was the first to set up | | | | counterintuitive concept for some. The networks, |
| radio stations all over the country. Between 1920 and | | | | which own television, areHistory of the Media - Old |
| 1922, 400 radio stations were set up, starting with | | | | Television the buyers of shows, not the sellers. On the |
| KBKA in Pittsburgh. Stations were also set up by | | | | other hand, they sell our eyeballs, so to speak, to |
| universities, newspapers, police departments, hotels, | | | | advertisers. Networks want the maximum possible |
| and labor unions.*By 1923, there were 600 radio | | | | profit from buying and selling time, both viewers' time, |
| stations across the United States, and $83 million | | | | and advertisers' time.The primary measure of |
| worth of sets had been sold.The biggest difference in | | | | television ratings, which determine the price of that time |
| radio before and after 1923 was that the first | | | | being bought and sold, is AC Nielsen, an independent |
| advertising was not heard on the radio until 1923. RCA | | | | company which provides information as to who |
| at the time was made up of four | | | | watches what on television. Currently, about 4,000 |
| companies:*AT&T*General Electric*United | | | | households are used to represent the national viewing |
| Fruit*WestinghouseUnited Fruit was one of the first | | | | of television. In the 1980's, only 1,200 households were |
| global corporations, and one of the first to advertise on | | | | used. Some households have an electronic device |
| the radio. The AT&T division of RCA first thought | | | | installed on their television which tracks what they |
| about selling time on the air to companies, which | | | | watch, while others keep a diary of viewing |
| marked the start of "toll broadcasting." WEAF was the | | | | habits.There are two measures for determining a |
| first station to operate this way, causing widespread | | | | show's audience. One is the rating, and the other is the |
| outrage, and accusation of "polluting the | | | | share.*Rating: Percentage of total homes with |
| airwaves."Because of this controversy, the practice of | | | | televisions tuned into a particular show.*Share: |
| selling advertising time was called "trade name | | | | Percentage of those watching television at a particular |
| publicity." Sponsors linked their name with a program | | | | time who are tuned into a particular show.The share is |
| on the air, rather than advertising a specific product in | | | | always greater than the rating. Ratings are more |
| a 30 second "commercial" as we know it today.Why | | | | important for advertisers, and share is more important |
| did AT&T decide to experiment with charging | | | | to the networks.Example:*Total households with |
| companies for air time?AT&T was not making any | | | | televisions: 150 million*Total households watching |
| money from broadcasting at the time since they only | | | | television at 8pm on Monday nights: 90 million*Total |
| made transmitters, not receivers. They only made | | | | households watching American Idol at 8pm on Monday |
| money when new radio stations bought the equipment | | | | nights: 45 million*Therefore: Rating: 30, Share: 50It's |
| required to broadcast. They did not make money from | | | | important to note how many factors can skew the |
| consumers buying radios.AT&T also started the | | | | results. Shows cost producers much more than the |
| practice of paying performers for their time on the air, | | | | networks typically pay them for those shows. The |
| rather than only volunteers, which was standard | | | | way for producers to make money is by getting the |
| practice for radio content up until that point.The first | | | | networks to renew the show, in order to have a shot |
| radio networkIn 1926, RCA set up the first radio | | | | at making money from syndication on other channels, |
| network, NBC. They decided it was more effective | | | | also knows as reruns. That is the case when individual |
| and efficient to produce shows in New York City, and | | | | stations (say for example, the Miami affiliate of ABC |
| then link the main radio station with stations all across | | | | wants to carry Seinfeld), buy the rights to a show |
| the country, connected by AT&T (another RCA | | | | from the producers of that show. Shows that last only |
| company) phone lines. (Now television networks are | | | | one season, for the most part, lose millions of dollars. |
| linked by satellite to their affiliates).This was the | | | | One of the most important factors in whether shows |
| beginning of the network affiliates system. The ideal | | | | will be renewed or not is their rating.This brings us to |
| network makes sure everyone in the country is | | | | how ratings can be skewed. For example, if a show |
| capable of listening to their signal. NBC at the time had | | | | has a 20 share, and it needs a 25 share to be |
| two philosophies:*Radio content was a "public service," | | | | renewed for another season, what might the |
| whose function was to sell radios.*Radio content was | | | | producers do? In principle, they need to convince |
| designed to generate income from advertising.History | | | | another 5% of the people watching television when |
| of the Media In 1927, the second network was formed. | | | | their show is on to watch their show; this is no simple |
| It was CBS, started by William Paley. Paley was the | | | | task, as that involves convincing millions of people. |
| first to think that networks could make money strictly | | | | However, since the ratings are based on those 4,000 |
| from advertising, not even getting involved in the sales | | | | Nielsen households, that means that they could |
| of radios. Like AT&T, CBS did not make radios. From | | | | convince just 200 Nielsen households to watch their |
| the start, they made their money from selling | | | | show, which would increase the share from 20 to 25. |
| advertising.The rising of radio networks caused the | | | | This is why Nielsen households must be kept totally |
| Radio Act of 1927 to be passed, which established the | | | | secret from the networks. When the Nielsen |
| FRC, or what is now known as the FCC, to allocate | | | | households have leaked to the networks, one way |
| broadcast licenses. The need for such an organization | | | | which they got people to watch their show was by |
| was brought on by the fact that airwaves are limited | | | | offering viewers a small sum of money for filling out a |
| resources, and broadcasting itself is a scarce public | | | | survey about a commercial which they were told |
| resource. By the 1930's, the structure of radio have | | | | would play only during a particular show. Since they |
| been set by the commercial format, although | | | | had to watch that channel while their show was on, |
| advertising never dominated radio like it would | | | | this would boost the share.Once ratings are |
| television later on.In the 1920's and '30's, radio programs | | | | determined, advertising prices are set by two factors:* |
| were divided into two groups. Sponsored shows, | | | | The size of the audience.* The demographics (income, |
| which had advertisers, and unsponsored shows, which | | | | age, gender, occupation, etc) of the audience.In short, |
| did not. The radio station paid for the unsponsored | | | | the job of television programs is to collect our time as |
| shows. The sponsored shows, on the other hand, | | | | a product, which they then sell to advertisers. |
| were created entirely by the company sponsoring the | | | | Programs have to support the advertising, delivering |
| show; advertisers were totally in charge of the radio | | | | viewers in the best possible state of mind for buying |
| station's content. The content became advertising. | | | | when the time for the commercials comes, which |
| Radio set the precedent for television, in that the same | | | | brings us to the Golden Age of Television.The 1950's |
| companies that controlled radio early on went on to | | | | are considered the "Golden Age of Television." During |
| control television.Soon thereafter, television inherited the | | | | this time, something called the "Anthology Series," |
| structure of radio. In the '40's, during the rise of | | | | where different actors each week took part in a |
| television, RCA also held a monopoly on all television | | | | show gained History of the Media - I Love |
| sets sold. By 1945-1955, advertising had taken over all | | | | Lucypopularity across the board...that is, with everyone |
| of television. Television was organized around the | | | | except for advertisers. The anthology series format |
| premise of selling things. The entire television industry | | | | was not right for advertisers, as it covered topics |
| was creating a political atmosphere of suspicion and | | | | which involved psychological confrontations which did |
| fear. Senator Joseph McCarthy, the founder of | | | | not leave the viewers in the proper state of mind for |
| McCarthyism, which was based on the fear of | | | | buying the products shown to them between program |
| Communism, and the HUAC (House Un-American | | | | segments. The subject matter of the anthology series |
| Activities Committee, began to question people | | | | was of the type that undermined the ads, almost |
| involved in television about their beliefs and | | | | making them seem fraudulent.This brought up the |
| associations.What affected television in its early | | | | question of what to network executives actually want |
| stages?*Politics (McCarthyism / HUAC).*Blacklists: | | | | shows to do? The answer is not to watch a program |
| From almost the inception of television, many writers, | | | | that makes them feel good, makes them laugh, or |
| directors, and actors were considered to be | | | | excites them, but rather to watch the television for a |
| pro-Communist and/or un-American.Certain topics | | | | set amount of time. With so many new shows being |
| were totally off-limits at the time for television, | | | | proposed, standards began to be intentionally, or |
| particularly issues of race relations in the 1960's. Overall, | | | | unintentionally, laid out for what shows could and |
| networks were not happy with the political situation for | | | | couldn't do. Risks could only be taken at the beginning |
| television in the 1960's, both in terms of the blacklists, | | | | and/or end of shows. Laugh tracks were conceived to |
| and of the fact that when every show had one | | | | tell the audience when to laugh. Programs began being |
| sponsor, that sponsor controlled the entire program. | | | | tested with audiences prior to being put on television |
| Networks preferred to control the program, by way of | | | | and/or radio. Show writers now had to write shows |
| moving to multiple sponsors/advertisers, where | | | | that would test well.Naturally, this caused many of the |
| networks would retain control of the show, and | | | | same elements and themes to appear in all shows. |
| advertisers would buy time in between the | | | | This was the beginning of recombinant television |
| programming.In the 1950's, networks decided to | | | | culture, where the same elements are endlessly |
| eliminate the practice of sponsors controlling the | | | | repeated, recombined, and mixed.This same culture is |
| shows with a move to spot selling, or advertisements | | | | what perpetuated the idea that people watch |
| between programs, as we know it today. What | | | | television, not specific shows. While people certainly |
| caused the move to spot selling?1.Discovery of fraud | | | | choose to watch certain shows instead of others, |
| in the quiz shows on television. Quiz shows were | | | | people less commonly choose to watch television |
| extremely popular at the time, and were liked by the | | | | instead of other things. People watch television. |
| networks, the sponsors, and the viewers alike. It turned | | | | Regardless of what was on, television viewing rates |
| out, however, that quiz shows were largely fixed. | | | | were extremely stable.David Pakman is editor |
| Charles Van Doren on "21" became a huge star due | | | | adminstrator of politics and media website Hear the |
| to his repeated wins, until it came out that the whole | | | | Issues ( a website frequented and praised by many |
| thing had been fixed. In the case of "The $64,000 | | | | mainstream journalist and pundits. |